Earth and Planetary Science

Origin of the Moon and Lunar Water

Nick Gorkavyi

Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/eps.v2i2.940

Received: 31 August 2023; Revised: 11 October 2023; Accepted: 16 October 2023; Published Online: 20 October 2023

---

Abstract

Three principal concepts regarding lunar formation have been examined: the accretion hypothesis, the mega-impact theory, and the multi-impact model. The multi-impact model amalgamates the salient facets of the mega-impact theory and the accretion hypothesis. As per this model, fragments of the terrestrial crust are ejected into space during collisions with numerous planetesimals (proto-asteroids) with diameters around 10–100 kilometers. In the vicinity of Earth’s orbit, this ejecta interacts with the accretion disk, augmenting its mass. Numerical computations demonstrate that particles within the prograde-rotating accretion disk effectively capture prograde-rotating ejecta while shedding retrograde-rotating ejecta onto the planetary body. The multi-impact theory provides an explanation for the creation of not just the Moon and Charon but also the satellites of asteroids. Several predictions regarding the parameters of asteroid satellites posited by this theory have already been validated through statistical analysis of binary asteroids. Different models of lunar formation yield varied conclusions regarding the quantity of lunar water, its subsurface distribution, and isotopic composition. The mega-impact theory postulates the genesis of a largely desiccated Moon. Consequently, the modest lunar water content may arise from comets, solar wind, or the transport of water from Earth’s atmosphere. These mechanisms for lunar water formation imply its superficial occurrence in polar regions and substantial deviation of the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio from terrestrial norms. Conversely, the multi-impact theory posits lunar water’s origin from planetesimals, akin to terrestrial water. Thus, a significant quantity of lunar water is inferred, expected to be pervasive across the lunar surface at varying depths, and possessing isotopic composition analogous to terrestrial water. Geomorphological structures in the lunar polar regions (smoothed craters, landslides, regular patterns) suggest the presence of a substantial permafrost layer with an approximate thickness of a kilometer.

Keywords: Moon; Mega-impact; Water; Asteroid satellites

---

References

[1] Artemis III Science: Definition Team Report [Internet]. Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf

[2] Ringwood, A.E., 2012. Origin of the Earth and Moon. Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin. pp. 1-295.

[3] Safronov, V.S., 1972. Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of the Earth and the Planets [Internet]. Available from: https://philpapers.org/rec/SAFEOT

[4] Ruskol, E.L., 1975. Origin of the moon. Nauka: Moscow. pp. 1-188.

[5] Jones, J.H., Palme, H., 2000. Geochemical constraints on the origin of the Earth and Moon. Origin of the Earth and Moon. University of Arizona Press: Tucson. pp. 197-216.

[6] Wang, H.S., Lineweaver, C.H., Ireland, T.R., 2018. The elemental abundances (with uncertainties) of the most Earth-like planet. Icarus. 299, 460-474. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2017.08.024

[7] Hartmann, W.K., Davis, D.R., 1975. Satellite-sized planetesimals and lunar origin. Icarus. 24(4), 504-515. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0019-1035(75)90070-6

[8] Cameron, A.G.W., 2000. Higher-resolution simulation of the giant impact. Origin of the Earth and Moon. University of Arizona Press: Tucson. pp. 133-144.

[9] Zhang, J., Dauphas, N., Davis, A.M., et al., 2012. The proto-Earth as a significant source of lunar material. Nature Geoscience. 5(4), 251-255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1429

[10] Prokof’eva, V.V., Tarashchuk, V.P., Gor’kavyi, N.N., 1995. Satellites of asteroids. Physics-Uspekhi. 38(6), 623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1070/PU1995v038n06ABEH000092

[11] Ringwood, A.E., 1989. Flaws in the giant impact hypothesis of lunar origin. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 95(3-4), 208-214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(89)90097-6

[12] Ruskol, E.L., 1986. Natural satellites of the planets. VINITI: Moscow. pp. 1-116.

[13] Gorkavyi, N.N., 2004. The new model of the origin of the Moon. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 36, 861.

[14] Gorkavyi, N.N., 2007. The origin of the Moon and binary asteroids. Izvestiya Astrophysicheskoy Observatorii. 103(2), 143-155.

[15] Rufu, R., Aharonson, O., Perets, H.B., 2017. A multiple-impact origin for the Moon. Nature Geoscience. 10(2), 89-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2866

[16] Adushkin, V.V., Vityazev, A.V., Pechernikova, G.V., 2014. В развитие теории происхождения и ранней эволюции Земли (Russia) [Development of the theory of the origin and early evolution of the Earth]. Problems of Biosphere Origin and Evolution. 2, 3-39.

[17] Gorkavyi, N.N., 2008. Regular Mechanism of the Formation of Asteroid Satellites [Internet]. Available from: https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/acm2008/pdf/8357.pdf

[18] Gaftonyuk, N.M., Gorkavyi, N.N., 2013. Asteroids with satellites: Analysis of observational data. Solar System Research. 47, 196-202. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S0038094613020032

[19] Keane, J.T., Porter, S.B., Beyer, R.A., et al., 2022. The geophysical environment of (486958) Arrokoth—A small Kuiper belt object explored by new horizons. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 127(6), e2021JE007068. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JE007068

[20] Hecht, J., 2015. Vesta has no moons—is it unlucky or did it eat them? [Internet]. New Scientist, 2015 May 21. Available from: https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27576-vesta-has-no-moons-is-it-unluckyor-did-it-eat-them

[21] Gorkavyi, N.N., Taidakova, T.A., 2019. The lonely Moon, double asteroids, and multiply collisions. Chelyabinsk superbolide. Springer: Berlin. pp. 287-300.

[22] Trofimov, P.M., Gorkavyi, N.N., 2022. The mass loss of the main asteroid belt and Mars’ zone caused by the impact of solar radiation and Jupiter: I: Numerical calculations of the dust evolution. Solar System Research. 56(3), 183-190. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S0038094622030078

[23] Gorkavyi, N.N., Trofimov, P.M., 2022. Reduction of the mass of the main asteroid belt and the Mars zone due to solar radiation and the influence of Jupiter—II: Scenario of the evolution of the residual disk density. Solar System Research. 56(4), 225-232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S0038094622040049

[24] Nagao, K., Okazaki, R., Nakamura, T., et al., 2011. Irradiation history of Itokawa regolith material deduced from noble gases in the Hayabusa samples. Science. 333(6046), 1128-1131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1207785

[25] Ryder, G., Koeberl, Ch., Mojzsis, S.J., 2000. Heavy bombardment on the Earth at ~3/85 Ga: The search for petrographic and geochemical evidence. Origin of the Earth and Moon. University of Arizona Press: Tucson. pp.475-492.

[26] Gorkavyi, N.N., Taidakova, T.A., 1995. A model for the formation of the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. Astronomical Journal Letters. 21(6), 846-851.

[27] Gorkavyi, N.N., Taidakova, T.A., 2001. Discovered Saturnian and undiscovered Neptunian retrograde satellites. American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts. 199, 63-06.

[28] Jewitt, D., Young, E.D., 2015. Oceans from the Skies. Scientific American. 312(3), 36-43.

[29] Marty, B., Altwegg, K., Balsiger, H., et al., 2017. Xenon isotopes in 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko show that comets contributed to Earth’s atmosphere. Science. 356(6342), 1069-1072. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal3496

[30] Altwegg, K., Balsiger, H., Bar-Nun, A., et al., 2015. 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, a Jupiter family comet with a high D/H ratio. Science. 347(6220), 1261952. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261952

[31] He, H., Ji, J., Zhang, Y., et al., 2023. A solar wind-derived water reservoir on the Moon hosted by impact glass beads. Nature Geoscience. 16(4), 294-300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01159-6

[32] Kletetschka, G., Klokočník, J., Hasson, N., et al., 2022. Distribution of water phase near the poles of the Moon from gravity aspects. Scientific Reports. 12(1), 4501. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08305-x

[33] Ding, Z.X., Wang, D., 2018. The Discovery of the “Freezing and Thawing Landform” of Tycho Impact Crater of the Moon [Internet]. Available from: https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2018/pdf/1367.pdf

[34] Gorkavyi, N., 2022. Investigation of Geomorphological Signatures of Permafrost in the Polar Lunar Areas with VIPER [Internet]. Available from: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20220018310

[35] Colaprete, A., Schultz, P., Heldmann, J., et al., 2010. Detection of water in the LCROSS ejecta plume. Science. 330(6003), 463-468. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1186986

[36] Stopar, J.D., Robinson, M.S., Barnouin, O.S., et al., 2017. Relative depths of simple craters and the nature of the lunar regolith. Icarus. 298, 34-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2017.05.022

[37] Bramson, A.M., Byrne, S., Putzig, N.E., et al., 2015. Widespread excess ice in arcadia planitia, Mars. Geophysical Research Letters. 42(16), 6566-6574. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064844

[38] Johnson, A., Reiss, D., Conway, S., et al., 2015. Small-scale Lobes in the Southern Hemisphere on Mars: Implications for Transient Liquid Water in the Recent Past [Internet]. Available from: https://elib.dlr.de/101155/1/EPSC2015-882.pdf

[39] Painter, S.L., Coon, E.T., Khattak, A.J., et al., 2023. Drying of tundra landscapes will limit subsidence-induced acceleration of permafrost thaw. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 120(8), e2212171120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212171120