Sustainable Marine Structures

Review on Design and Simulation Methods for Standard Freight Container Lashing

Anurag Ashokkumar Nema

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, MIT Arts, Design and Technology (MIT-ADT) University, Loni-Kalbhor, Pune 412201, Maharashtra, India

Sandeep Thorat

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, MIT Arts, Design and Technology (MIT-ADT) University, Loni-Kalbhor, Pune 412201, Maharashtra, India

Prerit Misra

Maharashtra Academy of Naval Education & Training (MANET), Loni-Kalbhor, Pune 412201, Maharashtra, India

Akshay Nangare

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, MIT Arts, Design and Technology (MIT-ADT) University, Loni-Kalbhor, Pune 412201, Maharashtra, India

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/sms.v8i1.2989

Received: 15 December 2025 | Revised: 5 January 2026 | Accepted: 16 January 2026 | Published Online: 4 March 2026

---

Abstract

Secure lashing and fixing of freight containers is a significant provision in structural integrity and in preventing loss of cargo during maritime transport. The classical model of container lashes is largely based on quasi-static assumptions as required by the international standards that are inclined to underestimate the actual dynamic forces due to ship motions, wave excitation and resonance effects. The disadvantages of these types of fixed design solutions have been proven in the recent incidents of huge container losses. This review provides a critical analysis of the analytical, numerical and experimental methods that are used in the evaluation of the standard freight container lashing systems. Particular attention is paid to finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and multi-body dynamics (MBD) techniques that are applied to simulate realistic loading conditions. The recent advances in the multi-physics coupling, scaled-model experimental validation techniques, and full-scale experimental validation techniques, the new tendencies of machine-learning prediction of lashing forces, and digital twins of real-time monitoring are critically analysed. The key gaps in the study related to the dynamic load representation, regulatory constraints, and validation practices are outlined. This review is aimed at providing researchers and marine engineers with a systematic understanding of the existing methodologies and future trends in research on the improvement of safety and reliability of container lashing systems in real-life operation conditions.

Keywords: Freight Containers; Container Lashing Systems; Finite Element Analysis; Dynamic Loads; Regulations; Digital Twin; Machine Learning

---

References

[1] Li, M., Wang, G., Liu, K., et al., 2024. Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Supporting Forces and Lashing Forces in a Ship Cargo Securing Scheme. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 12(1), 158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12010158

[2] Melnyk, O., 2024. Fundamental Concepts of Deck Cargo Handling and Transportation Safety. European Transport/Trasporti Europei. 98, 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48295/et.2024.98.1

[3] Öztürk, O.B., 2024. Evaluation of the factors causing container lost at sea through fuzzy-based Bayesian network. Regional Studies in Marine Science. 73, 103466. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2024.103466

[4] Kaup, M., Łozowicka, D., Baszak, K., et al., 2023. An Assessment of Stability and Strength of a Container Ship for Safety Compliance in Cargo Loading Plans. Applied Sciences. 14(1), 345. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010345

[5] Aksentijević, S., Tijan, E., Kapidani, N., et al., 2022. Dynamic Smart Numbering of Modular Cargo Containers. Sustainability. 14(14), 8548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148548

[6] Li, C., Wang, D., Liu, J., et al., 2021. Experimental and numerical investigation on dynamic response of a four-tier container stack and lashing system subject to rolling and pitching excitation. Applied Ocean Research. 109, 102553. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2021.102553

[7] Li, C., Wang, D., Cai, Z., 2020. Experimental and numerical investigation of lashing bridge and container stack dynamics using a scaled model test. Marine Structures. 75, 102846. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2020.102846

[8] Qi, Z., Zhu, D., 2025. Dynamic Analysis and Efficient Numerical Algorithm for Rocking Response of Freestanding Packages Under Transportation Excitations. Applied Sciences. 15(9), 5015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app15095015

[9] Liu, J., Li, C., Wang, D., et al., 2020. Investigations on the dynamics of container stack and securing system under rolling motion using a scaled model test. Ships and Offshore Structures. 17(1), 92–104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17445302.2020.1816772

[10] Singh, P., Singh, J., Antle, J.R., et al., 2014. Load Securement and Packaging Methods to Reduce Risk of Damage and Personal Injury for Cargo Freight in Truck, Container and Intermodal Shipments. Journal of Applied Packaging Research. 6(1), 47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14448/japr.01.0005

[11] Li, C., Wang, D., Liu, J., 2020. Numerical analysis and experimental study on the scaled model of a container ship lashing bridge. Ocean Engineering. 201, 107095. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.107095

[12] Mursid, O., Oterkus, E., Oterkus, S., 2025. Coupled Ship Simulation in Hydrodynamics and Structural Dynamics Induced by Wave Loads: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 13(3), 447. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13030447

[13] Lee, C., Lee, M.K., Shin, J.Y., 2020. Lashing Force Prediction Model with Multimodal Deep Learning and AutoML for Stowage Planning Automation in Containerships. Logistics. 5(1), 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/logistics5010001

[14] Li, C., Wang, D., Liu, J., 2019. Numerical simulation of container stacks dynamics under typical motion excitation. In Proceedings of the ASME 2019 38th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering (OMAE), Glasgow, UK, 9–14 June 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2019-95644

[15] Yun, S.-M., Kim, S.-P., Chung, S.-M., et al., 2020. Structural Safety Assessment of Connection between Sloshing Tank and 6-DOF Platform Using Co-Simulation of Fluid and Multi-Flexible-Body Dynamics. Water. 12(8), 2108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w12082108

[16] Khayyer, A., Shimizu, Y., Gotoh, H., et al., 2021. Multi-resolution ISPH-SPH for accurate and efficient simulation of hydroelastic fluid-structure interactions in ocean engineering. Ocean Engineering. 226, 108652. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.108652

[17] Jia, D., Agrawal, M., Wang, C., et al., 2015. Fluid-Structure Interaction of Liquid Sloshing Induced by Vessel Motion in Floating LNG Tank. In Proceedings of the ASME 2015 34th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Newfoundland, NL, Canada, 31 May–5 June 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/omae2015-41463

[18] Xu, W., Maki, K.J., Silva, K.M., 2021. A data-driven model for nonlinear marine dynamics. Ocean Engineering. 236, 109469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109469

[19] Khayyer, A., Gotoh, H., Falahaty, H., et al., 2018. An enhanced ISPH–SPH coupled method for simulation of incompressible fluid–elastic structure interactions. Computer Physics Communications. 232, 139–164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpc.2018.05.012

[20] Baig, M.Z., Lagdami, K., Mejia Jr., M.Q., 2024. Enhancing maritime safety: A comprehensive review of challenges and opportunities in the domestic ferry sector. Maritime Technology and Research. 6(3), 268911. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33175/mtr.2024.268911

[21] Jakovlev, S., Eglynas, T., Jankunas, V., et al., 2025. Analysis of Damage to Shipping Container Sides During Port Handling Operations. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 13(5), 982. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13050982

[22] Acanfora, M., Montewka, J., Hinz, T., et al., 2017. On the estimation of the design loads on container stacks due to excessive acceleration in adverse weather conditions. Marine Structures. 53, 105–123. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2017.01.003

[23] Wolf, V., Rathje, H., 2009. Motion Simulation of Container Stacks on Deck. In Proceedings of the SNAME Maritime Convention, Providence, RI, USA, 21–23 October 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5957/smc-2009-014

[24] de Souza, V.A., Kırkayak, L., Suzuki, K., et al., 2011. Experimental and numerical analysis of container stack dynamics using a scaled model test. Ocean Engineering. 39, 24–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2011.10.004

[25] ISO 3874:2017. 2017. Series 1 Freight Containers—Handling and Securing.

[26] Chen, Z., Zhu, X., Zhang, J., 2018. Deduction and prevention of container overboard accident during loading and unloading. IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering. 383(1), 012048. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/383/1/012048

[27] Wolf, V., Darie, I., Rathje, H., 2011. Rule development for container stowage on deck. In: Soares, C.G., Fricke, W. (Eds.). Advances in Marine Structures. CRC Press: London, UK.

[28] Bruno, G., Guerrini, G.B., Caballini, C., 2023. The use of the CTU Code to increase freight transport safety and business competitiveness: An empirical analysis of a sample of Italian companies. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 19, 100826. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100826

[29] Wan, S., Yang, X., Chen, X., et al., 2022. Emerging marine pollution from container ship accidents: Risk characteristics, response strategies, and regulation advancements. Journal of Cleaner Production. 376, 134266. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134266

[30] World Shipping Council, 2024. Containers Lost at Sea Report 2025. Available from: https://www.worldshipping.org/containers-lost-at-sea (cited 5 December 2025).

[31] Kirkayak, L., Suzuki, K., 2008. Numerical Analysis of Container Stacks Dynamics. In Proceedings of the 3rd PAAMES and AMEC 2008, Chiba, Japan, 20–22 October 2008; pp. 205–208.

[32] Anggriani, A.D.E., Baso, S., Bochary, L., et al., 2022. Intact Stability Analysis of a Container Ship Due to Containers Stowage on Deck. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science. 972(1), 012047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/972/1/012047

[33] Wuest, T., Mak-Dadanski, J., Kaczmarek, B., et al., 2015. Challenges of Heavy Load Logistics in Global Maritime Supply Chains. In: Umeda, S., Nakano, M., Mizuyama, H., et al. (Eds.). Advances in Production Management Systems: Innovative Production Management Towards Sustainable Growth (APMS 2015): IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, Vol 460. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 175–182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22759-7_20

[34] Wang, Y., Wu, W., Soares, C.G., 2020. Experimental and Numerical Study of the Hydroelastic Response of a River-Sea-Going Container Ship. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 8(12), 978. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8120978

[35] Norwood, M.N., Dow, R.S., 2013. Dynamic analysis of ship structures. Ships and Offshore Structures. 8, 270–288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17445302.2012.755285

[36] Tao, S., Liu, H., 2019. Analysis for Mooring System of Ship. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 6(8). DOI: https://doi.org/10.31873/ijeas.6.8.2019.19

[37] Riesner, M., el Moctar, O., 2021. A numerical method to compute global resonant vibrations of ships at forward speed in oblique waves. Applied Ocean Research. 108, 102520. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2020.102520

[38] Silva-Campillo, A., Pérez-Arribas, F., 2024. Numerical Analysis of Structural Vibrations in Masts—A Practical Study Applied to a 28-Meter Tugboat. Applied Sciences. 14(13), 5751. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135751

[39] Somayajula, A., Falzarano, J., 2016. A Comparative Assessment of Simplified Models for Simulating Parametric Roll. Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. 139(2), 021103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4034921

[40] Giannakis, M., Bouka, M., 2015. A Trade-off Optimization Model for Container Fulfilment. Supply Chain Forum: An International Journal. 16(1), 46–63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16258312.2015.11517366

[41] Kat, C., Schalk, P., 2011. Importance of Correct Validation of Simulation Models. In Proceedings of the ASME 2011 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, Washington, DC, USA, 28–31 August 2011; pp. 869–875. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/detc2011-47688

[42] Tkaczyk, S., Drozd, M., Kędzierski, Ł., et al., 2021. Study of the Stability of Palletized Cargo by Dynamic Test Method Performed on Laboratory Test Bench. Sensors. 21(15), 5129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155129

[43] Liu, S., Sprenger, F., Papanikolaou, A., et al., 2020. Experimental and numerical studies on linear and nonlinear seakeeping phenomena of the DTC ship in regular waves. Ship Technology Research. 68(1), 41–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09377255.2020.1857007

[44] Jiao, J., Ren, H., Soares, C.G., 2021. A review of large-scale model at-sea measurements for ship hydrodynamics and structural loads. Ocean Engineering. 227, 108863. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.108863

[45] Zhou, Y., 2019. Further validation study of hybrid prediction method of parametric roll. Ocean Engineering. 186, 106103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.06.008

[46] Rudan, S., Karačić, J., Ćatipović, I., 2021. Non-linear response of a moored LNG ship subjected to regular waves. Ships and Offshore Structures. 16, 44–57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17445302.2021.1907064

[47] Edwards, S.J., Levine, M., 2025. Data-Driven Extreme Response Estimation. arXiv Preprints. arXiv:2503.21638. DOI: DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2503.21638

[48] Hosseini, E., 2023. Tabu Search and Simulated Annealing metaheuristic algorithms applied to the RoRo vessel stowage problem. arXiv Preprints. arXiv:2301.04468. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2301.04468

[49] de Souza, V.A., Kirkayak, L., Watanabe, I., et al., 2013. Experimental and numerical analysis of container multiple stacks dynamics using a scaled model. Ocean Engineering. 74, 218–232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2013.05.013

[50] Wang, R., Li, J., Bai, R., et al., 2023. Storage strategy of outbound containers with uncertain weight by data-driven hybrid genetic simulated annealing algorithm. PLoS One. 18(4), e0277890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277890

[51] Yu, F., Cong, W., Chen, X., et al., 2024. Harnessing LSTM for Nonlinear Ship Deck Motion Prediction in UAV Autonomous Landing Amidst High Sea States. In: Jing, X., Ding, H., Ji, J., et al. (Eds.). Advances in Applied Nonlinear Dynamics, Vibration, and Control—2023 (ICANDVC 2023): Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, Vol. 1152. Springer: Singapore. pp. 820–830. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0554-2_63

[52] Zhang, D., Zhou, X., Wang, Z.-H, et al., 2023. A data driven method for multi-step prediction of ship roll motion in high sea states. Ocean Engineering. 276, 114230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.114230

[53] Hwang, S.-Y., Lee, J.-H., 2021. The Numerical Investigation of Structural Strength Assessment of LNG CCS by Sloshing Impacts Based on Multiphase Fluid Model. Applied Sciences. 11(16), 7414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167414

[54] Su, Y., Zou, J., Li, Z., et al., 2022. Factors influencing the dynamic response of protective structures within heavy-duty vehicles in complex transportation conditions. Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control. 42(2), 509–524. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14613484221130197

[55] Hậu, P.H., 2025. Random Fatigue Analysis to Assess Sustainability for Mooring Systems of Semisubmersible Offshore Structure in Vietnamese Sea Condition. In: Huynh, D.V.K., Doan, H., Cao, T.M., et al. (Eds.). Proceedings of the 3rd Vietnam Symposium on Advances in Offshore Engineering (VSOE 2024): Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, Vol. 590. Springer: Singapore. pp. 651–664. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-3912-0_63

[56] Han, X., Leira, B.J., Sævik, S., et al., 2021. Onboard tuning of vessel seakeeping model parameters and sea state characteristics. Marine Structures. 78, 102998. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2021.102998

[57] Westin, C., Irani, R.A., 2021. Modeling dynamic cable–sheave contact and detachment during towing operations. Marine Structures. 77, 102960. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2021.102960

[58] Skjong, S., Pedersen, E., 2022. A distributed object-oriented simulator framework for marine power plants with weak power grids. Journal of Marine Engineering and Technology. 22(4), 176–188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20464177.2022.2120171

[59] van Twiller, J., Sivertsen, A., Pacino, D., et al., 2023. Literature survey on the container stowage planning problem. European Journal of Operational Research. 317(3), 841–857. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2023.12.018

[60] Zocco, F., Wang, H., Van, M., 2023. Digital Twins for Marine Operations: A Brief Review on Their Implementation. arXiv Preprints. arXiv:2301.09574. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.09574

[61] González-Cancelas, N., Palacios Calzada, J.P., Vaca-Cabrero, J., et al., 2025. Optimizing Sustainable Port Logistics in Spanish Ports with Emerging Technologies. Sustainability. 17(8), 3392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083392

[62] Lopes, L.S., Nabais, J.L., Pinto, C.J., et al., 2025. Essential Competencies in Maritime and Port Logistics: A Study on the Current Needs of the Sector. Sustainability. 17(6), 2378. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062378

[63] Rao, A.R., Wang, H., Gupta, C., 2024. Predictive Analysis for Optimizing Port Operations. arXiv Preprints. arXiv:2401.14498. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2401.14498

[64] Park, S.-H., Yun, S., Kim, S., 2023. Autonomous Vehicle-Loading System Simulation and Cost Model Analysis of Roll-On, Roll-Off Port Operations. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 11(8), 1507. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11081507