Research on World Agricultural Economy

Methodology of Carbon Sink Accounting and Evaluation Model for the Full Chain of "Consolidation-Carbon Sequestration-Transaction" of Arable Land

Manlu Yi

Guangdong Urban‑Rural Planning and Design Research Institute Technology Group Co. Ltd., Guangzhou 510290, China; The Joint Lab For Smart Low‑Carbon City, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building And Urban Science, Guangzhou 510290, China

Chang Chen

Guangdong Urban‑Rural Planning and Design Research Institute Technology Group Co. Ltd., Guangzhou 510290, China; The Joint Lab For Smart Low‑Carbon City, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building And Urban Science, Guangzhou 510290, China

Yueqi Li

Guangdong Urban‑Rural Planning and Design Research Institute Technology Group Co. Ltd., Guangzhou 510290, China; The Joint Lab For Smart Low‑Carbon City, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building And Urban Science, Guangzhou 510290, China

Fei Wang

Guangdong Urban‑Rural Planning and Design Research Institute Technology Group Co. Ltd., Guangzhou 510290, China

Yanping Liu

Guangdong Urban‑Rural Planning and Design Research Institute Technology Group Co. Ltd., Guangzhou 510290, China

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v7i2.2547

Received: 29 July 2025 | Revised: 3 September 2025 | Accepted: 14 October 2025 | Published Online: 24 March 2026

---

Abstract

The urgent challenge of climate change has made carbon neutrality a central policy goal worldwide.Farmland soil in China holds significant potential for carbon sequestration, yet small-scale, scattered household management has constrained the development of large-scale farmland carbon sink projects. To address this gap, this study constructs a full-chain methodological framework of “Consolidation-Carbon Sequestration-Transaction,” integrating land consolidation theory, agroecological principles, and ecosystem service valuation. A “scale-cost-benefit” analysis model was developed to quantify the economic viability of farmland carbon sinks under different land-use conversion scenarios. Results show that under the current carbon price of 40 yuan/ton, the per-mu benefit of farmland carbon sequestration is only 8–12 yuan, which is insufficient to cover monitoring and transaction costs at small scales. However, when farmland is consolidated into contiguous plots, costs can be reduced by 30–40%, allowing the cost-benefit balance point to be reached. This study provides a standardized quantitative method for farmland carbon sink evaluation, offering practical guidance for designing large-scale carbon sequestration projects in China. Furthermore, the proposed framework has broader international relevance for countries with smallholder-dominated agricultural structures, where land consolidation and carbon sink standardization can similarly promote sustainable agricultural modernization and climate mitigation.

Keywords: Agricultural Land Consolidation; Contiguous Fertile Fields; Consolidation‑Carbon Sequestration‑ Transaction Full Chain; Modeling the Scale‑Cost‑Benefit of Farmland Carbon Sinks

---

References

[1] Xu, S., Sheng, C., Tian, C., 2020. Changing soil carbon: influencing factors, sequestration strategy and research direction. Carbon Balance and Management. 15(1), 2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-020-0137-5

[2] Mingyue, Z., Yuanxin, L., Xueyan, Z., 2022. A review of research advances on carbon sinks in farmland ecosystems. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 42(23), 9405–9416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb202203280762 (in Chinese)

[3] Beckmann, V., 2021.Transitioning to Sustainable Life on Land. MDPI: Basel, Switzerland. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/books978-3-03897-879-4

[4] Sobolewska-Mikulska, K., Stańczuk-Gałwiaczek, M., 2018. The Assessment of the Scope of Implementation of the Idea of Multifunctional Rural Development in Land Consolidation Projects in Poland. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development. 47(1), 81–88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2018.00375

[5] Pandao, M.R., Rathod, S.R., Sirsat, D.D., et al., 2024. The Role of Soil in Carbon Sequestration: Mechanisms and Implications. Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology. 23(9), 66–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajee/2024/v23i9598

[6] Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, 2022. 2022 Annual Report on China's Policies and Actions of Respond to Climate Change. Environmental Protection. 50(21),45–56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14026/j.cnki.0253-9705.2022.21.012 (in Chinese)

[7] Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, 2022. Notice of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and the National Development and Reform Commission on Issuing the "Implementation Plan for Emission Reduction and Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture and Rural Areas". Gazette of The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 7, 15–19. Available from: https://www.moa.gov.cn/nybgb/2022/202207/ (in Chinese)

[8] General Office of the State Council, 2023. Administrative Measures for Voluntary Emission Reduction Trading of Greenhouse Gases (Trial). Gazette of The State Council of the People's Republic of China. 34, 21–28. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/2023/issue_10866/material/202334.pdf (in Chinese)

[9] People's Daily, 2025. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and The State Council have issued the "Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027)" People's Daily. Available from: https://www.peopleapp.com/column/30048082167-500006062978 (in Chinese)

[10] Shu, Z., Xiaobin, J., Xuhong, Y., et al., 2016. Determining and estimating impacts of farmland consolidation projects on the regional carbon effects. Resources Science. 38(01), 93–101. Available from: https://www.resci.cn/CN/10.18402/resci.2016.01.10 (in Chinese)

[11] Bingbin, Z., Lun, Y., 2025. Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Greenhouse Gas Emissions among Four Types of Rice in China. Journal of Resources and Ecology. 16(3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.003

[12] Zhang, R.Z., Zhang, Y.M., Fan, S.G., 2020. Research Tracking and Prospect of Agricultural Methane Emissions in China since the 21st Century: A Visual Analysis Based on CiteSpace. Journal of China Agricultural University. 30(06), 123–136. (in Chinese)

[13] Jiang, Y., Tang, Y.-T., Long, H., et al., 2022. Land consolidation: A comparative research between Europe and China. Land Use Policy. 112, 105790. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105790

[14] Cai, Z., Tsuruta, H., Gao, M., et al., 2003. Options for mitigating methane emission from a permanently flooded rice field. Global Change Biology. 9(1), 37–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00562.x

[15] Cay, T., Iscan, F., 2011. Fuzzy expert system for land reallocation in land consolidation. Expert Systems with Applications. 38(9), 11055–11071. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2011.02.150

[16] Van Dijk, T., 2007. Complications for traditional land consolidation in Central Europe. Geoforum. 38(3), 505–511. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.11.010

[17] Muchová, Z., Leitmanová, M., Petrovič, F., 2016. Possibilities of optimal land use as a consequence of lessons learned from land consolidation projects (Slovakia). Ecological Engineering. 90, 294–306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.01.018

[18] Bronstert, A., Vollmer, S., Ihringer, J., 1995. A review of the impact of land consolidation on runoff production and flooding in Germany. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. 20(3–4), 321–329. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-1946(95)00044-5

[19] Veršinskas, T., Vidar, M., Hartvigsen, M., et al., 2020. Legal guide on land consolidation: Based on regulatory practices in Europe. FAO: Rome, Italy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9520en

[20] Muñoz Gielen, D., Mualam, N., 2019. A framework for analyzing the effectiveness and efficiency of land readjustment regulations: Comparison of Germany, Spain and Israel. Land Use Policy. 87, 104077. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104077

[21] Duan, J., Ren, C., Wang, S., et al., 2021. Consolidation of agricultural land can contribute to agricultural sustainability in China. Nature Food. 2(12), 1014–1022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00415-5

[22] Vitikainen, A., 2004. An overview of land consolidation in Europe. Nordic Journal of Surveying and real Estate research. 1(1). Available from: https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/2004/france_2004_comm7/papers_symp/ts_01_vitikainen.pdf

[23] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), 2016. New Market Mechanism. Available from: https://unfccc.int/topics/markets--non-market-mechanisms/resources/views-on-new-market-based-mechanisms

[24] Barbato, C.T., Strong, A.L., 2023. Farmer perspectives on carbon markets incentivizing agricultural soil carbon sequestration. npj Climate Action. 2(1), 26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-023-00055-4

[25] Jingyang, D., Nuoyi, K., Liangliang, G., 2025. International practices in black soil conservation and China's lessons. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 33(8), 1–11. Available from: https://www.ecoagri.ac.cn/article/doi/10.12357/cjea.20250199 (in Chinese)

[26] U.S. Department of Agriculture, n.d. USDA Feedstock Carbon Intensity Calculator. Available from: https://www.usda.gov/usda-fdcic (cited 10 June 2025).

[27] Moli, H., 2023. Inspiration of EU's Common Agricultural Policy to Green Agricultural Development in China. Sustainable Development Economic Guide. 12, 40–43. Available from: https://lib.cqvip.com/Qikan/Article/Detail?id=7111140851 (in Chinese)

[28] Strauss, V., Paul, C., Dönmez, C., et al., 2024. Carbon farming for climate change mitigation and ecosystem services—Potentials and influencing factors. Journal of Environmental Management. 372, 123253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123253

[29] Nayak, H.S., McDonald, A.J., Kumar, V., et al., 2024. Context-dependent agricultural intensification pathways to increase rice production in India. Nature Communications. 15(1), 8403. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52448-6

[30] Kravchenko A.N., 2021. Soil Carbon Sequestration as a Climate Change Mitigation Strategy: Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 76(3), 55A–62A.

[31] Australian Government, 2014. Emissions Reduction Fund White Paper. Available from: https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/erf-white-paper.pdf (cited 10 June 2025).

[32] Cerri, C.E.P., Cherubin, M.R., Damian, J.M., et al., 2021. Soil carbon sequestration through adopting sustainable management practices: potential and opportunity for the Americas. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356759538_Soil_carbon_sequestration_through_adopting_sustainable_management_practices_potential_and_opportunity_for_the_American_countries (cited 10 June 2025).

[33] Özçelik, T., Kuhnert, M., 2025. Modelling the Impact of Drained and Undrained Conditions on GHG Emissions in Croplands: A Case Study in Lincolnshire, UK. Irrigation and Drainage. ird.3120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.3120

[34] Hwang, W., Park, M., Cho, K., et al., 2024. Drainage Practice of Rice Paddies as a Sustainable Agronomic Management for Mitigating the Emission of Two Carbon-Based Greenhouse Gases (CO2 and CH4): Field Pilot Study in South Korea. Sustainability. 16(7), 2802. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072802

[35] Islam, S.F., Van Groenigen, J.W., Jensen, L.S., et al., 2018. The effective mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies without compromising yield by early-season drainage. Science of The Total Environment. 612, 1329–1339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.022

[36] Freitag, M., Friedrich, T., Kassam, A., 2024. The carbon footprint of Conservation Agriculture. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. 22(1), 2331949. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2024.2331949

[37] Claassen, R., Bowman, M., Mcfadden, J., et al., 2018. Tillage Intensity and Conservation Cropping in the United States. United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service: Washington, DC, USA.

[38] Wu, Y., Davis, E.C., Sohngen, B.L., 2025. Crop rotation and the impact on soil carbon in the U.S. Corn Belt. Carbon Balance and Management. 20(1), 6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-025-00293-5

[39] Man, A., Xudong, Z., Yixin G., 2021. Research and Practice of Conservation Tillage in Black Soil Region of Northeast China. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences. 36(10),1203–1215. Available from: https://bulletinofcas.researchcommons.org/journal/vol36/iss10/11/ (in Chinese)

[40] Goffart, J.-P., Haverkort, A., Storey, M., et al., 2022. Potato Production in Northwestern Europe (Germany, France, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Belgium): Characteristics, Issues, Challenges and Opportunities. Potato Research. 65(3), 503–547. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11540-021-09535-8

[41] Surekha, K., 2013. Evaluation of Organic and Conventional Rice Production Systems for their Productivity, Profitability, Grain Quality and Soil Health. Agrotechnology. 01(S11). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.S11-006

[42] Yang, J., Zhang, S., Zhang, J., et al., 2025. Incorporating crop rotation into the winter wheat-summer maize system to enhance soil multifunctionality and sustainable grain production in the North China Plain. Field Crops Research. 325, 109834. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2025.109834

[43] Telwala, Y., 2023. Unlocking the potential of agroforestry as a nature-based solution for localizing sustainable development goals: A case study from a drought-prone region in rural India. Nature-Based Solutions. 3, 100045. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2022.100045

[44] Sileshi, G.W., Mafongoya, P.L., Akinnifesi, F.K., et al., 2014. Agroforestry: Fertilizer Trees. In: Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems. Elsevier: New York, NY, USA. pp. 222–234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52512-3.00022-X

[45] Yin, J., Zhao, L., Xu, X., et al., 2022. Evaluation of long-term carbon sequestration of biochar in soil with biogeochemical field model. Science of The Total Environment. 822, 153576. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153576

[46] Pattnaik, B.K., Behera, R., Chandra Santra, S., et al., 2025. Potentials of urban waste derived biochar in minimizing heavy metal bioavailability: A techno-economic review. iScience. 28(3), 111915. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2025.111915

[47] Lustosa Filho, J.F., Carneiro, J.S.D.S., Barbosa, C.F., et al., 2020. Aging of biochar-based fertilizers in soil: Effects on phosphorus pools and availability to Urochloa brizantha grass. Science of The Total Environment. 709, 136028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136028

[48] Deolu-Ajayi, A.O., Snethlage, J., Wilbers, G.-J., et al., 2024. Adapting to salty conditions in the Netherlands : A joint report on activities from the ‘Dealing with Salinization' project (2023–2024). Wageningen Plant Research: Wageningen, Netherlands. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18174/674509

[49] Paustian, K., Easter, M., Brown, K., et al., 2018. Field- and farm-scale assessment of soil greenhouse gas mitigation using COMET-Farm. In: Delgado, J.A., Sassenrath, G.F., Mueller, T. (Eds.). Agronomy Monographs. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI, USA. pp. 341–359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr59.c16