Research on World Agricultural Economy

Nutritious Rice Consumption among Urban Consumers in Naypyitaw, Myanmar

Chan Myae Lwin

Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; Department of Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Naypyitaw, Myanmar

Orachos Napasintuwong

Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Suwanna Praneetvatakul

Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v6i1.1340

Received: 8 November 2024 | Revised: 24 November 2024 | Accepted: 2 December 2024 | Published Online: 18 December 2024

---

Abstract

Myanmar faces considerable nutrition challenges, including high rates of anemia, stunting, and wasting, alongside a growing prevalence of non-communicable diseases. Given the country’s high per capita rice consumption, nutritious rice offers a culturally compatible intervention to address these issues. This study investigates the factors associated with choices of nutritious rice among consumers in Naypyitaw, Myanmar. Data were collected from 481 participants and analyzed using a binomial logit model. Results indicate that only 17% of consumers have chosen nutritious rice in the past three years. Higher education levels, increased income, presence of health-vulnerable household members, and positive health behaviors—such as regular exercise, higher fruit intake, and attention to nutritional labeling—were found to significantly increase the likelihood of nutritious rice consumption. Conversely, perceived barriers related to availability and affordability significantly hinder consumption.  Findings underscore the need for improvements in consumer knowledge and awareness of health benefits of nutritious rice, as well as policies supporting increased affordability and accessibility, to foster greater consumption and improve dietary health in Myanmar.

Keywords: Random Utility Theory; Healthy Diet; Dietary Choice; Nutrition; Consumer Preference

---

References

[1] World Health Organization (WHO), 2021. UN report: Pandemic year marked by spike in world hunger. Available from: https://www.who.int/news (cited 21 July 2021).

[2] Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2024. The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2024 – Financing to end hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition in all its forms. FAO: Rome.

[3] Aung, W.P., Htet, A.S., Bjertness, E., et al., 2018. Urban–rural differences in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus among 25–74 year-old adults of the Yangon Region, Myanmar: Two cross-sectional studies. BMJ Open. 8(3), e020406. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020406

[4] Thapa, R., Dahl, C., Aung, W.P., et al., 2021. Urban–rural differences in overweight and obesity among 25–64 years old Myanmar residents: A cross-sectional, nationwide survey. BMJ Open. 11(3), e042561.

[5] Latt, T., Zaw, K., Ko, K., 2019. Measurement of diabetes, prediabetes and their associated risk factors in Myanmar 2014. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2019(12), 291–298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/dmso.s156270

[6] International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2021. Monitoring the Agri-food System in Myanmar: Food vendors—May 2021 survey round. Strategy Support Program Reserarch Note 54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134436

[7] International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2022. Monitoring the agri-food system in Myanmar: Food vendors—March 2022. Strategy Support Program Reserarch Note 78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.135903

[8] Minten, B., Goeb, J., Zin, W.K., et al., 2023. Agricultural value chains in a fragile state: The case of rice in Myanmar. World Development. 167, 106244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106244

[9] Myint, T., The, N.E.M., Kyaw, E.M.T., et al., 2016. Study on per capita rice consumption and ratio of household expenditure in Myanmar (final report) [Unpublished manuscript]. Yezin Agricultural University: Myanmar.

[10] van Asselt, J., Lambrecht, I., Aung, Z.W., 2024. Vulnerability and welfare during multiple crises. In: Boughton, D., Belton, B., Lambrecht, I., et al., (eds.). Myanmar's agrifood system: Historical development, recent shocks, future opportunities. International Food Policy Research Institute: Washington. DC, USA. Available from: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/155152

[11] Doesthale, Y.G., Devara, S., Rao, S., et al., 1979. Effect of milling on mineral and trace element composition of raw and parboiled rice. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 30(1), 40–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740300108

[12] Ministry of Health and Sports (MoHS), 2019. Technical guidance on rice fortification. Ministry of Health and Sports: Naypyitaw, Myanmar.

[13] Ravichanthiran, K., Ma, Z.F., Zhang, H., et al., 2018. Phytochemical profile of brown rice and its nutrigenomic implications. Antioxidants. 7(6), 71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox7060071

[14] Zhang, G., Malik, V.S., Pan, A., et al., 2010. Substituting brown rice for white rice to lower diabetes risk: A focus-group study in Chinese adults. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 110(8), 1216–1221. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2010.05.004

[15] Fang, P., Zhou, Z., Wang, H., et al., 2024. Consumer preference and willingness to pay for rice attributes in China: Results of a choice experiment. Foods. 13(17), 2774. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172774

[16] My, N.H.D., Van Loo, E.J., Rutsaert, P., et al., 2018. Consumer valuation of quality rice attributes in a developing economy: Evidence from a choice experiment in Vietnam. British Food Journal. 120(5), 1059–1072. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-05-2017-0277

[17] Central Statistical Organization (CSO), 2021. Myanmar Statistical Yearbook 2021. Ministry of planning and finance: Naypyitaw, Myanmar.

[18] Ministry of Health and Sports (MoHS), 2019. Myanmar Micronutrient and Food Consumption Survey MMFCS (2017–2018) Interim Report. MoHS: Naypyitaw, Myanmar.

[19] Mya Fortified Rice. (n.d.). Posts [Facebook page]. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/myafradmin?mibextid=ZbWKwL

[20] Myan San Riceberry. (n.d.). Posts [Facebook page]. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/myansanRiceberry?mibextid=ZbWKwL

[21] The Little Rice Company Myanmar. (n.d.). Posts [Facebook page]. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/thelittlericemyanmar?mibextid=ZbWKwL

[22] Theingi Rice. (n.d.). Posts [Facebook page]. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/theingirice?mibextid=ZbWKwL

[23] Department of Consumer Affairs, 2024. The fair reference rice prices for October 2024 (in Burmese language). Available from: https://doca.gov.mm/my/node/25527 (cited 7 October 2024).

[24] Train, K.E., 2009. Discrete choice methods with simulation, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

[25] Foxall, G.R., 2010. Interpreting Consumer Choice: The Behavioral Perspective Model. Routledge: New York, NY, USA; London, UK.

[26] Becker, M.H., Maiman, L.A., Kirscht, J.P., et al., 1977. The Health Belief Model and Prediction of Dietary Compliance: A Field Experiment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 18(4), 348–366. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2955344

[27] Silva, P., Araújo, R., Lopes, F., et al., 2023. Nutrition and food literacy: framing the challenges to health communication. Nutrients. 15(22), 4708.

[28] Department of Population, 2015. The 2014 Myanmar population and housing census: Naypyitaw Union Territory report. Ministry of Immigration and Population: Naypyitaw, Myanmar.

[29] World Food Programme (WFP), 2019. WFP Myanmar-Rice fortification. Available from: https://www.wfp.org/publications/wfp-myanmar-rice-fortification (cited 21 June 2019).

[30] Thi, M.K., 2017. Fortified rice to feed children in 51 nurseries. Myanmar Times. Available from: https://www.mmtimes.com (cited 21 August 2017).

[31] van't Riet, J., Sijtsema, S.J., Dagevos, H., et al., 2011. The importance of habits in eating behaviour. An overview and recommendations for future research. Appetite. 57(3), 585–596.

[32] Verplanken B., Ryan B., 2018. Psychology of habit. Springer: Berlin, Germany.

[33] Sulat, J.S., Prabandari, Y.S., Sanusi, R., et al., 2018. The validity of health belief model variables in predicting behavioral change: A scoping review. Health Education. 118(6), 499–512.

[34] Zorbas, C., Palermo, C., Chung, A., et al., 2018. Factors perceived to influence healthy eating: A systematic review and meta-ethnographic synthesis of the literature. Nutrition Reviews. 76(12), 861–874. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy043

[35] Gujarati, D.N., 2009. Basic econometrics, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA.

[36] Wardle, J., Parmenter, K., Waller, J., 2000. Nutrition knowledge and food intake. Appetite. 34(3), 269–275.

[37] Jayne, J.M., Frongillo, E.A., Torres-McGehee, T.M., et al., 2018. A healthy eating identity is associated with healthier food choice behaviors among US Army soldiers. Military medicine. 183(11–12), e666–e670.

[38] Febian, F.I., Syed Annuar, S.N., 2020. Intention to consume towards functional foods among senior citizen in Malaysia. Journal of International Business, Economics and Entrepreneurship (JIBE). 5(2), 56–61.

[39] Yazdanpanah, M., Forouzani, M., Hojjati, M., 2015. Willingness of Iranian young adults to eat organic foods: Application of the Health Belief Model. Food Quality and Preference. 41, 75–83.

[40] Rapoff, M.A., 2018. Assessing Barriers to Therapeutic Regimens for Young People with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. The Journal of Rheumatology. 45, 588–589.

[41] Andrews, H., Hill, T.D., Cockerham, W.C., 2017. Educational attainment and dietary lifestyles. Advances in Medical Sociology. 18, 101–120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/S1057-629020170000018005

[42] Koç, H., van Kippersluis, H., 2016. Thought for Food: Understanding Educational Disparities in Diet. CESR-Schaeffer Working Paper (2016-005).

[43] Lasheras, C., Patterson, A.M., Casado, C., et al., 2001. Effects of education on the quality of life, diet, and cardiovascular risk factors in an elderly spanish community population. Experimental Aging Research. 27(3), 257–270. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/036107301300208691

[44] Boddy, L.M., Knowles, Z.R., Davies, I.G., et al., 2012. Using formative research to develop the healthy eating component of the CHANGE! school-based curriculum intervention. BMC Public Health. 12(1), 710. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-710

[45] Fard, N.A., Morales, G.D.F., Mejova, Y., et al., 2021. On the interplay between educational attainment and nutrition: A spatially-aware perspective. EPJ Data Science. 10(1), 18.

[46] Lê, J., Dallongeville, J., Wagner, A., et al., 2013. Attitudes toward healthy eating: A mediator of the educational level-diet relationship. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 67(8), 808–814. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2013.110

[47] McIsaac, J.-L.D., Kirk, S.F., Kuhle, S., 2015. The association between health behaviours and academic performance in Canadian elementary school students: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 12(11), 14857–14871.

[48] Blaylock, J., Smallwood, D., Kassel, K., et al., 1999. Economics, food choices, and nutrition. Food Policy. 24(2–3), 269–286.

[49] Sirasa, F., Mitchell, L.J., Rigby, R., et al., 2019. Family and community factors shaping the eating behaviour of preschool-aged children in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review of interventions. Preventive Medicine. 129, 105827. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.105827

[50] Slamet, A.S., Nakayasu, A., Bai, H., 2016. The determinants of organic vegetable purchasing in Jabodetabek region, Indonesia. Foods. 5(4), 85.

[51] Robertson, B., Young, P., Kristensen, J., et al., 2018. Strategic review of food and nutrition security in Myanmar:“In support of sustainable development goal (SDG) 2-roadmap to 2030". World Food Programme. Available from: https://www.wfp.org/publications

[52] Bairagi, S., Mohanty, S., Custodio, M.C., 2019. Consumers' preferences for rice attributes in Cambodia: A choice modeling approach. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies. 9(2), 94–108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-09-2017-0092

[53] Lee, J.Y., Pavasopon, N., Napasintuwong, O., et al., 2020. Consumers' valuation of geographical indication-labeled food: The case of Hom Mali rice in Bangkok. Asian Economic Journal. 34(1), 79–96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12196

[54] Aung, W.P., Bjertness, E., Htet, A.S., et al., 2019. Trends in diabetes prevalence, awareness, treatment and control in Yangon region, Myanmar, between 2004 and 2014, two cross-sectional studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16(18), 3461.

[55] Wang, Y., Wahl, T.I., Seale, J.L., et al., 2019. The effect of China's family structure on household nutrition. Food and Nutrition Sciences. 10(2), 198–206.

[56] Saito, A., Matsumoto, M., Hyakutake, A., et al., 2018. The presence of children in households was associated with dietary intake among Japanese married women: The POTATO study. Journal of Nutritional Science. 7, e16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2018.9

[57] Sogari, G., Velez-Argumedo, C., Gómez, M.I., et al., 2018. College students and eating habits: A study using an ecological model for healthy behavior. Nutrients. 10(12), 1823. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10121823

[58] Crawford, D., Ball, K., Mishra, G., et al., 2007. Which food-related behaviours are associated with healthier intakes of fruits and vegetables among women? Public Health Nutrition. 10(3), 256–265. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980007246798

[59] Laska, M.N., Hearst, M.O., Lust, K., et al., 2015. How we eat what we eat: Identifying meal routines and practices most strongly associated with healthy and unhealthy dietary factors among young adults. Public Health Nutrition. 18(12), 2135–2145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014002717

[60] Soe, A.P.K., 2020. Government to expand nationwide fortified rice programme. Myanmar Times. Available from: https://www.mmtimes.com (cited 22 January 2020).

[61] Gyawali, P., Tamrakar, D., Shrestha, A., et al., 2022. Consumer acceptance and preference for brown rice—A mixed-method qualitative study from Nepal. Food Science and Nutrition. 10(6), 1864–1874. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2803

[62] Cheung, J.T.H., Lok, J., Gietel-Basten, S., et al., 2021. The food environments of fruit and vegetable consumption in east and Southeast Asia: A systematic review. Nutrients. 13(1), 148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010148

[63] Custodio, M.C., Demont, M., Laborte, A., et al., 2016. Improving food security in Asia through consumer-focused rice breeding. Global Food Security. 9, 19–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.05.005

[64] Ahmad Hanis, I.A.H., Jinap, S., Mad Nasir, S., et al., 2012. Consumers' demand and willingness to pay for rice attributes in Malaysia. International Food Research Journal. 19(1), 363–369.

[65] Cabral, D., Moura, A.P., Fonseca, S.C., et al., 2024. Exploring rice consumption habits and determinants of choice, Aiming for the development and promotion of rice products with a low Glycaemic Index. Foods. 13(2), 301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13020301

[66] Gondal, T.A., Keast, R.S.J., Shellie, R.A., et al., 2021. Consumer acceptance of brown and white rice varieties. Foods. 10(8), 1950. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081950

[67] Lăzăroiu, G., Ionescu, L., Uță, C., et al., 2020. Environmentally responsible behavior and sustainability policy adoption in green public procurement. Sustainability. 12(5), 2110.

[68] Lazaroiu, G., Andronie, M., Uţă, C., et al., 2019. Trust management in organic agriculture: sustainable consumption behavior, environmentally conscious purchase intention, and healthy food choices. Frontiers in Public Health. 7, 340.

[69] Majerova, J., Sroka, W., Krizanova, A., et al., 2020. Sustainable brand management of alimentary goods. Sustainability. 12(2), 556.