Research on World Agricultural Economy

Echoes of Survival: Climate Change Impact & Typologies of Adaptation among Vulnerable Communities toward Climate-Induced Food Insecurity in Pakistan

Mohsin Khan

College of Humanities and Development Studies, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; School of Public Policy & Urban Affairs, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02119, USA

Yanxia Zhang

College of Humanities and Development Studies, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China

Shahbaz Khan

Colorado Water Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; Central Great Plains Research Station, USDA‑Agricultural Research Service, Akron, CO 80720, USA

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v6i1.1106

Received: 15 May 2024 | Revised: 25 November 2024 | Accepted: 28 November 2024 | Published Online: 23 January 2025

---

Abstract

Climate change exacerbates severe and differential impacts across diverse classes and genders, influencing their livelihoods, food insecurity vulnerabilities, and adaptation measures. Through an intersectional and social justice approach integrated with grounded theory, we documented field observation with individual narratives and amplified voices from a wide range of individuals, including internally displaced people, women, smallholders, landless tenants, daily wage laborers and community leaders in fragile districts of Bannu and D I Khan in Pakistan. We found a growing impact of climate on these households' food security including socio-psychological stress and stigmas. In addition to formulating an interpretive framework, our results highlight the significant role of socio-religious, cultural, gendered, behavioral, environmental, and institutional factors in shaping individuals' climate-induced food security vulnerabilities, and their ability to adapt to climate extremes. These individuals employed several mitigation strategies to cope with food insecurity, including diversification of non-farming livelihoods, increased reliance on social and communal networks and informal credit markets. The study emphasizes on considering the interplay between socio-economic classes, religion, social networks, and gender dynamics in relation to adaptive strategies to foster sustainable food systems and further suggests that existing policies and adaptation programs should benefit from incorporating community and individual narratives to tackle climate extremes.

Keywords: Climate Change; Food Insecurity; Social Justice Approach; Adaptation Strategies; Social Networks; Sustainable Food Systems; Gender Dynamics

---

References

[1] IPCC, 2019. Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Human Health.

[2] Fanzo, J. Miachon, L., 2023. Harnessing the Connectivity of Climate Change, Food Systems and Diets: Taking Action to Improve Human and Planetary health. Anthropocene. 42, 100381.

[3] Azimi, M.N., Rahman, M.M., 2024. Food Insecurity, Environment, Institutional Quality, and Health Outcomes: Evidence from South Asia. Global Health. 20, 21 . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01022-2

[4] WHO. Climate Change and Health. Geneva: WHO (2021). Available from: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/348068/9789240038509-eng.pdf (cited 29 December 2024).

[5] Eissler, S., Thiede, B.C. Strube, J., 2019. Climatic Variability and Changing Reproductive Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Environmental Change. 57, 101912. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.011

[6] Hussain, A., Qamar, F.M., Adhikari, L., et al., 2021. Climate change, mountain food systems, and emerging opportunities: A study from the Hindu Kush Karakoram Pamir Landscape, Pakistan. Sustainability. 13(6), 3057.

[7] Burke, M., Lobell, D., 2010. Food Security and Adaptation to Climate Change: What Do We Know? Climate Change and Food Security: Adapting Agriculture to A Warmer World. 133–153.

[8] UN., 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Available from: http://www.cma-lifelonglearning.org/lll/wp-content/uploads/2015/001%20Transforming%20our%20world%20Agenda%20Sustainable%20Development%202030%20EngFreSpa%20AEL%20151004.doc (cited 29 December 2024).

[9] WFP., 2020. Climate Change: A Threat to Food Security. Available from: https://www.wfp.org/climate-action#:~:text=With%20the%20vast%20majority%20of,hunger%20and%20malnutrition%20will%20increase (cited 29 December 2024).

[10] World Health Organization (WHO), 2023. 122 Million More People Pushed into Hunger Since 2019 Due to Multiple Crises, Reveals UN Report. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/12-07-2023-122-million-more-people-pushed-into-hunger-since-2019-due-to-multiple-crises--reveals-un-report (cited 29 December 2024).

[11] Eckstein, D., Vera, K. Schäfer, L., 2021. Global Climate Risk Index 2021. Who Suffers Most from Extreme Weather Events? Weather-Related Loss Events in 2019 and 2000–2019. Available from: https://germanwatch.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202021_1.pdf (cited 29 December 2024).

[12] Bacha, M.S., et al., 2021. The Dynamics of Public Perceptions and Climate Change in Swat Valley, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Sustainability. 13(8), 1–22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084464

[13] Shehzad, K., 2023. Extreme Flood in Pakistan: Is Pakistan Paying the Cost of Climate Change? A Short Communication. Science of The Total Environment. 880, 162973.

[14] Qamer, F.M., et al., 2023. A Framework for Multi-sensor Satellite Data to Evaluate Crop Production Losses: the Case Study of 2022 Pakistan Floods. Scientific Reports. 13(1), 4240.

[15] Khan, M., 2021. The COVID-19 Pandemic and Food Security in Pakistan. MSR Working Paper Nr. 06-2021. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3896173

[16] Ullah, S., 2017. Climate Change Impact on Agriculture of Pakistan- A Leading Agent to Food Security. International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources. 6(3), 76–79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2017.06.555690

[17] Sultana, F., 2014. Gendering Climate Change: Geographical Insights. The Professional Geographer. 66(3), 372–381.

[18] Sultana, F., 2022. Critical Climate Justice. The Geographical Journal. 188(1), 118–124.

[19] Jones, A.D., et al., 2013. What Are We Assessing When We Measure Food Security? A Compendium and Review of Current Metrics. Advances in Nutrition. 4(5), 481–505.

[20] Herwig, H., 2000. Nutrition and Food Security; Conceptual Framework of Food and Nutrition Security. GTZ (Deutche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbHi) .

[21] De Haen, H., Klasen, S. Qaim, M., 2011. What Do We Really Know? Metrics for Food Insecurity and Undernutrition. Food Policy. 36(6), 760–769.

[22] Berry, E.M., et al., 2015. Food Security and Sustainability: Can One Exist Without the Other? Public Health Nutrition. 18(13), 2293–2302.

[23] Broussard, N.H., 2019. What Explains Gender Differences in Food Insecurity? Food Policy. 83, 180–194.

[24] Grainger, M., 2010. World Summit on Food Security (UN FAO, Rome, 16–18 November 2009). Development in practice. 20(6), 740–742.

[25] Devereux, S., et al. 2004. Improving the analysis of Food Insecurity. Food insecurity measurement, livelihoods approaches and policy: applications in Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems (FIVIMS).

[26] Lang, T. Barling, D., 2012. Food Security and Food Sustainability: Reformulating the Debate. The Geographical Journal. 178(4), 313–326.

[27] Power, E.M., 1999. Combining Social Justice and Sustainability for Food Security. For Hunger-proof Cities: Sustainable Urban Food Systems, 30–37 .

[28] United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 1992. Definition of Food Security. USAID Policy Determination 19. Washington, DC. Available from: https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnaav468.pdf (cited 29 December 2024).

[29] Adeagbo, O.A., Ojo, T.O. Adetoro, A.A., 2021. Understanding the Determinants of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies among Smallholder Maize Farmers in South-west, Nigeria. Heliyon. 7(2), e06231.

[30] Perkins, P.E. Climate Justice, Gender and Intersectionality. In: Routledge Handbook of Climate Justice. Routledge. pp. 349–358.

[31] Kaijser, A., Kronsell, A., 2014. Climate Change through the Lens of Intersectionality. Environmental politics. 23(3), 417–433.

[32] Crenshaw, K., 1991. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review. 43(6), 1241–1299.

[33] Biagini, B., et al., 2014. A Typology of Adaptation Actions: A Global Look at Climate Adaptation Actions Financed through the Global Environment Facility. Global Environmental Change. 25, 97–108.

[34] Mullainathan., et al., 2001. Do People Mean What They Say? Implications for Subjective Survey Data. American Economic Review. 91(2), 67–72.

[35] Weltin, M., et al., 2017. Analysing Behavioural Differences of Farm Households: An Example of Income Diversification Strategies Based on European Farm Survey Data. Land Use Policy. 62, 172–184.

[36] Banerjee, R.R., 2015, Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change, Impact and Adaptation Strategies: A Case Study of Four Villages in the Semi-arid Regions of India. Natural Hazards. 75, 2829–2845.

[37] Zobeidi, T., Yaghoubi, J. Yazdanpanah, M., 2021. Investigating Typology of Adaptation Strategies of Villagers to Water Shortage in Khuzestan Province: Application of Grounded Theory.

[38] Asadi, A., Jamshidi, O. Kalantari, K., 2018. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Smallholder Farmers of Hamedan Province. Iranian Agricultural Extension and Education Journal. 13(2), 109–130.

[39] Azadi, Y., et al., 2019. Farmers' Adaptation Choices to Climate Change: A Case Study of Wheat Growers in Western Iran. Journal of Water and Climate Change. 10(1), 102–116.

[40] Azadi, Y., Yazdanpanah, M., Mahmoudi, H., 2019. Understanding Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Behaviors through Climate Change Beliefs, Risk Perception, Trust, and Psychological Distance: Evidence from Wheat Growers in Iran. Journal of Environmental Management. 250, 109456.

[41] Jamshidi, O., et al, 2020. Adaptive Capacity of Smallholder Farmers Toward Climate Change: Evidence from Hamadan Province in Iran. Climate and Development. 12(10), 923–933.

[42] Khaledi, F., et al., 2015. Factors Influencing on Farmers’ Adaptive Capacities to Climate Change (Wheat Farmers in Sarpole Zahab Township, Kermanshah Province). Rural Research. 6(3), 655–678.

[43] Kumar, P., Fürst, C. Joshi, P.K., Year. Differentiated Socio-ecological System Approach for Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment in the Central Himalaya. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 29(1), 1–37.

[44] Muneer, S., et al., 2024. Farm Households' Perception and Adaptation to Climate Change in Relation of Food Crop Productivity in Pakistan.Environment, Development and Sustainability. 26, 11379–11396.

[45] Deressa, T.T., et al., Determinants of Farmers’ Choice of Adaptation Methods to Climate Change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Global Environmental Change. 19(2), 248–255.

[46] Thinda, K.T., et al., 2020. Understanding the Adoption of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies among Smallhoder Farmers: Evidence from Land Reform Beneficiaries in South Africa. Land Use Policy. 99, 104858.

[47] Nyangau, J.O., et al., 2021. Smallholder Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change and Adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Masaba South Sub-county, Kisii, Kenya. Heliyon. 7, e06789.

[48] Xie, S., et al., 2022. Agro-pastoralists’ Perception of Climate Change and Adaptation in the Qilian Mountains of Northwest China. Scientific Reports. 12, 12689.

[49] Chausson, A., et al., 2020. Mapping the Effectiveness of Nature‐Based Solutions for Climate Change Adaptation. Global Change Biology. 26(11), 6134–6155.

[50] Richardson, K.J., et al., 2018. Food Security Outcomes under A Changing Climate: Impacts of Mitigation and Adaptation on Vulnerability to Food Insecurity. Climatic Change. 147, 327–341. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2137-y

[51] Gebrehiwot, T., Van Der Veen, A., 2013. Farm Level Adaptation to Climate Change: the Case of Farmer’s in the Ethiopian Highlands. Environmental Management. 52(1), 29–44.

[52] Beilin, R., Sysak, T., Hill, S. Farmers and Perverse Outcomes: the Quest for Food and Energy Security, Emissions Reduction and Climate Adaptation. Global Environmental Change. 22(2), 463–471.

[53] Cunningham, R., et al., 2016. Engaging Communities in Climate Adaptation: the Potential of Social Networks. Climate Policy. 16(7), 894–908.

[54] Aldrich, D.P., Page-Tan, C.M. Paul, C.J., 2016. Social Capital and Climate Change Adaptation. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.342

[55] Elum, Z.A., Modise, D.M. Marr, A., 2017. Farmer’s Perception of Climate Change and Responsive Strategies in Three Selected Provinces of South Africa. Climate Risk Management. 16, 246–257.

[56] Hasegawa, T., et al., 2021. Extreme Climate Events Increase Risk of Global Food Insecurity and Adaptation Needs. Nature Food. 2(8), 587–595.

[57] Mishra, A., Bruno, E., Zilberman, D., 2021. Compound Natural and Human Disasters: Managing Drought and COVID-19 to Sustain Global Agriculture and Food Sectors. Science of The Total Environment 754, 142210.

[58] Ortiz, A.M.D., et al., 2021. A Review of the Interactions between Biodiversity, Agriculture, Climate Change, and International Trade: Research and Policy Priorities. One Earth. 4(1), 88–101.

[59] Pautasso, M., et al., 2012. Impacts of Climate Change on Plant Diseases—Opinions and Trends.European Journal of Plant Pathology. 133(1), 295–313.

[60] Abbass, K., et al., 2022. A Review of the Global Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation, and Sustainable Mitigation Measures. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29(28), 42539–42559.

[61] Watts, N., et al., 2015. Health and Climate Change: Policy Responses to Protect Public Health. The lancet. 386, 1861–1914.

[62] Watts, N. et al., 2019. The 2019 Report of The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change: Ensuring That the Health of A Child Born Today is Not Defined by A Changing Climate. The Lancet. 394, 1836–1878.

[63] Lemery, J., Knowlton, K.,Sorensen, C., 2021. Global Climate Change and Human Health: from Science to Practice, 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons.

[64] Yang, B. Usman, M. Do Industrialization, Economic Growth and Globalization Processes Influence the Ecological Footprint and Healthcare Expenditures? Fresh Insights Based on the STIRPAT Model for Countries with the Highest Healthcare Expenditures. Sustainable Production and Consumption. 28, 893–910.

[65] Meierrieks, D., 2021. Weather Shocks, Climate Change and Human Health. World Development. 138, 105228.

[66] FAO., 2020. Climate Change: Unpacking the Burden on Food Safety. Food Safety and Quality Series No. 8. Rome. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8185en

[67] Franchini, M., Mannucci, P.M. Impact on Human Health of Climate Changes. European Journal of Internal Medicine. 26(1), 1–5.

[68] Ahmed, A., et al., 2021. The Impacts of Climate Change on Displaced Populations: A Call for Action. The Journal of Climate Change and Health. 3, 100057.

[69] Chu, E., Michael, K., 2019. Recognition in Urban Climate Justice: Marginality and Exclusion of Migrants in Indian Cities. Environment and Urbanization. 31(1), 139–156.

[70] Hayes, K. et al., 2018. Climate Change and Mental Health: Risks, Impacts and Priority Actions.International Journal of Mental Health Systems. 12, 1–12.

[71] O’Brien, K., et al., 2004. Mapping Vulnerability to Multiple Stressors: Climate Change and Globalization in India.Global Environmental Change. 14(4), 303–313.

[72] Pandey, S. et al., 2007. Economic Costs of Drought and Rice Farmers’ Coping Mechanisms: A Cross-country Comparative Analysis. International Rice Research Institute. . Available from: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cJoDBRGbJUsC&oi=fnd&pg=PR4&dq=Economic+Costs+of+Drought+and+Rice+Farmers%E2%80%99+Coping+Mechanisms:+A+Cross-country+Comparative+Analysis&ots=T-L-c0gPiz&sig=aY9lN-h52tv9XlkEqovB9ksCBWI#v=onepage&q=Economic%20Costs%20of%20Drought%20and%20Rice%20Farmers%E2%80%99%20Coping%20Mechanisms%3A%20A%20Cross-country%20Comparative%20Analysis&f=false

[73] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)., 2019. Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update. Available from: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf

[74] Khan, M. et al., 2020. A Comparative Analysis of the Government and NGOs in Delivering Quality Services for the Rural People of Pakistan: Community PerspectivesAsia-Pacific Journal of Rural Development. 30(1–2), 203–225.

[75] Martin-Shields, C.P. Stojetz, W., 2019. Food Security and Conflict: Empirical Challenges and Future Opportunities for Research and Policy Making on Food Security and Conflict. World Development. 119, 150–164.

[76] Munoz-Mora, J.C., 2016. Fighting while ‘talking’: Assessing the Impact of Civil war on agriculture. Available from: https://www.eafit.edu.co/escuelas/economiayfinanzas/noticias-eventos/Paginas/fighting-while-talking-assessing-the-impact-of-civil-war-on-agriculture.aspx

[77] Dago, E., 2021. Armed Conflicts and Food Insecurity-a Short Literature Review. INRAe, CIRAD, CIAT, Montpellier, mimeo, 14.

[78] Maccini, S., Yang, D., 2008. Under the Weather: Health, Schooling, and Economic Consequences of Early-life Rainfall. NBER Working Paper.

[79] Hoddinott, J., Kinsey, B., 2001. Child Growth in the Time of Drought. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics. 63(4), 409–438.

[80] Bernal, J., Frongillo, E.A., Jaffe, K., 2016. Food Insecurity of Children and Shame of Others Knowing They are Without Food. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 11(2), 180–194.

[81] Ntihinyurwa, P.D., de Vries, W.T., 2021. Farmland Fragmentation, Farmland Consolidation and Food Security: Relationships, Research Lapses and Future Perspectives. Land. 10(2), 129.

[82] Sen, S. R., 1981. Food Security—Issues and Approaches. Indian Economic Review. 16(3), 213–219.

[83] Nussbaum, M., 2000. Women's Capabilities and Social Justice.Journal of Human Development. 1(2), 219–247.

[84] Khan, M., 218. Combating Institutionalized Discrimination and Gender-Based Violence in Pakistan. Cornell Policy Review.

[85] Glaser, B. Strauss, A., 2017. Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Routledge: New York, NY, USA. pp. 23–45.

[86] Charmaz, K., 2011. Grounded Theory Methods in Social Justice Research. Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry. 4(1), 359–380.

[87] Singh, C. et al., 2019. Exploring Methodological Approaches to Assess Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation: Reflections from Using Life History Approaches. Regional Environmental Change. 19, 2667–2682.

[88] Woroniecki, S., et al., 2024. The Lived Experiences of Transformations: The Role of Sense-making and Phenomenology Analyses. Environmental Science and Policy, 159, 103797.

[89] Walker, D., Myrick, F., Grounded Theory: An Exploration of Process and Procedure. Qualitative Health Research. 16(4), 547–559.

[90] Provincial Diaster Management Authority, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. (2023). Monsoon Contingency Plan 2023 KP [PDF]. Available from: https://www.pdma.gov.pk/sub/uploads/Monsoon%20Contingency%20Plan%202023%20(Final).pdf

[91] Naderifar, M., Goli, H. Ghaljaie, F., 2017. Snowball Sampling: A Purposeful Method of Sampling in Qualitative Research. Strides in Development of Medical Education. 14(3), 1–6.

[92] Fassinger, R.E., 2005. Paradigms, Praxis, Problems, and Promise: Grounded Theory in Counselling Psychology Research.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 52(2), 156.

[93] Cochran, A., Neumayer, L.A., Elder, W.B., 2019. Barriers to Careers Identified by Women in Academic Surgery: A Grounded Theory Model. The American Journal of Surgery. 218(4), 780–785.

[94] Ntihinyurwa, P.D. de Vries, W.T. Farmland Fragmentation, Farmland Consolidation and Food Security: Relationships, Research Lapses and Future Perspectives. Land. 10(2), 129.

[95] Khan, M., Ali, Q.U.A., 2016. Socio-economic empowerment of women in Pakistan; Evidences from Gilgit-Baltistan. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 6(8), 462–471.

[96] Sen, S.R., 1981. Food Security—Issues and Approaches. Indian Economic Review. 16(3), 213–219.

[97] Rocha, C. Food Insecurity As Market Failure: A Contribution from Economics.Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 1(4), 5–22.

[98] Hussain, Z. Akram, W. Persistent Food Insecurity from Policy Failures in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review. 817–834.

[99] FAO., 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World.

[100] Holleman, C. Conti, V., 2020. Role of Income Inequality in Shaping Outcomes on Individual Food Insecurity: Background Paper for the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019-FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working paper 19-06. Available from: https://www.fao.org/policy-support/tools-and-publications/resources-details/en/c/1333972/

[101] Leung, C.W., et al., 2022. The Psychological Distress of Food Insecurity: A Qualitative Study of the Emotional Experiences of Parents and Their Coping Strategies.Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 122(10), 1903–1910.

[102] Fang, D., Thomsen, M.R. Nayga, R. M., 2021. The Association between Food Insecurity and Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic. BMC Public Health. 21, 1–8.

[103] Bernal, J., Frongillo, E.A. Jaffe, K., 2016. Food Insecurity of Children and Shame of Others Knowing They are without Food Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition. 11(2), 180–194.